Kerala, India’s education frontrunner, now faces enrolment dip and politicisation

In 1817, Gouri Parvati Bayi, queen regent of Travancore, issued a proclamation that would echo through two centuries: the State would bear the entire cost of educating its people “that there might be no backwardness in the spread of enlightenment among them”. This recognition of public instruction as a state duty laid the foundation for what would become the celebrated Kerala Model of development.

Two centuries later, Kerala’s educational achievements, including near-total literacy, universal primary education, strong gender parity, and one of India’s largest higher education networks, continue to draw global attention. Yet the system has reached a turning point. School enrolments are declining, many young people are going abroad for studies, universities face administrative challenges, and there is increasing pressure to prepare students for a knowledge-based economy. Urgent reforms are the need of the hour.

‘Enlightenment’ as State policy

Kerala’s educational progress stems from a long legacy stretching back to the 1800s, shaped by a unique combination of State interventions, Christian missionaries, and social reform movements. Figures like Sree Narayana Guru and Ayyankali championed education for the marginalised, raising resources and consciousness in equal measure. These movements, coupled with the progressive policies of princely States, created a fertile ground for educational expansion.

The State’s higher education history cannot be separated from its tripartite colonial past. Travancore and Cochin were princely States, while Malabar formed part of the Madras Presidency under direct British rule. Each region developed education differently, influenced by missionary initiatives, royal patronage and reform movements.

Travancore, often regarded as the cradle of Kerala’s intellectual awakening, led the way. Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma and his successors expanded schools and introduced English learning. Early initiatives came from Christian missionaries, particularly the London Mission Society and the Basel Evangelical Mission, which established seminaries and English schools from 1816 onwards.

By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Travancore had established a network of institutions including Sanskrit, Ayurveda and women’s colleges and a law school. The crowning achievement came in 1937 with the foundation of the University of Travancore, the first university in the region, later renamed the University of Kerala. It was formally established through a royal proclamation by Sree Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma, with Sir C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer as its first Vice-Chancellor.

Cochin’s progress was slower but distinctive. The government encouraged private agencies through grants-in-aid, enabling missionary and community initiatives to flourish alongside State institutions, giving the region’s education landscape a hybrid character that persists today.

Malabar, under direct British administration, initially lagged behind its princely neighbours. The Basel Evangelical Mission opened schools in Kozhikode and Thalassery, leading to the spread of primary education. Despite these initiatives, Malabar fell behind Travancore and Cochin, partly due to the relative absence of patronage. Yet the region’s institutions became centres of nationalist and social reform movements, when English education played a crucial role in eroding caste hierarchies and nurturing political consciousness.

Among the first colleges launched in the private sector in Kerala were CMS College in Kottayam (1892) and Scott Christian College, Nagercoil (1893), now in Tamil Nadu. Originally founded as seminaries, these institutions gradually evolved into full-fledged colleges affiliated with the University of Madras. Kerala Vidyasala, founded in 1877 by the Zamorin of Eranad as an English school in Calicut, later became Zamorin’s College and is now the Zamorin’s Guruvayurappan College. Subsequently, other institutions were founded, including Malabar Christian College, Kozhikode (1909), St. Thomas College, Thrissur (1919), and St. Theresa’s College, Ernakulam (1927).

Post-Independence expansion

Independence opened a new chapter. National commissions, from the University Education Commission chaired by S. Radhakrishnan in 1948 to the National Education Commission headed by D. S. Kothari between 1964 and 1966, shaped educational policy across India. In Kerala, this led to free and compulsory education that delivered remarkable literacy rates.

However, progress wasn’t without turbulence. The election of the world’s first democratically elected Communist government in 1957 under E.M.S. Namboodiripad brought a radical shift. Education was viewed as an instrument of social revolution, tied closely to land reforms, labour rights and movements for social justice. The Kerala Education Bill of 1957, aimed at regulating private educational institutions, triggered fierce opposition from religious and social groups fearing loss of autonomy. While the Bill eventually passed with modifications, it was among the reasons for the government’s fall.

Despite political upheavals, the Kerala University Act of 1957 restructured the University of Travancore into the University of Kerala and brought nearly all colleges under unified control, ensuring a regulated system of higher learning.

By 1970, school enrolment reached 48 lakh with 100% coverage of the 6-11 age group. Three-fourths of total education expenditure was spent on general education. Infrastructure steadily improved: by 2001, nearly 95% of rural populations had primary schools within one kilometre. School buildings, drinking water facilities and toilets became near-universal. The dropout ratio became the country’s lowest in 2006-07. Around this time, the government took the initiative to enhance SSLC results of schools with only 33% pass, support schools for children with special needs, make two channels of EDUSAT Victers operational, and implement the Union government’s flagship scheme, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.

In higher education, social demand was intense, driven by social reform movements, the spread of literacy and active participation of private managements. During this phase, colleges multiplied, universities expanded and professional courses in engineering, medicine, law and agriculture found strong footing.

As enrolments expanded, new universities were created to meet regional needs: University of Calicut (1968) for northern Kerala, Cochin University of Science and Technology (CUSAT) (1971) for technical education, Mahatma Gandhi University (1983) for central Kerala, and Kannur University (1995) for the far north. Over time, specialised universities also emerged, including Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kerala Agricultural University, National University of Advanced Legal Studies, Kerala University of Health Sciences, and A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technological University.

A comprehensive school curriculum revision took place following the Kerala Curriculum Framework of 2007. In 2010, the ground-breaking Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act came into force. Various committees, including one headed by P.O.J. Lebba were constituted to examine quality aspects of school education, suggesting curriculum revisions, five-day working weeks for higher secondary, and maintaining the higher secondary directorate as a separate entity.

However, another major reform, the 1985 decision to delink the pre-degree course from universities, ran into fierce opposition from teachers, students and university employees. The higher secondary course was finally introduced only in 1990-91.

The digital turn and public education revival

The launch of the Public Education Rejuvenation Mission in 2016 proved to be a turning point. When the Left Democratic Front government stepped in to take over four loss-making aided schools that the High Court had ordered closed, it sent a clear message about its resolve to protect public education. The initiative, called Pothu Vidyabhyasa Samrakshana Yajnam, set out bold targets, including improving school infrastructure, developing 1,000 schools as centres of excellence, and turning classrooms for Classes IX to XII into hi-tech learning spaces.

A report submitted to the Kerala State Planning Board noted that 5.05 lakh students enrolled in public educational institutions during 2017-2018 to 2019-2020 due to successful implementation of the mission. This reversed years of migration to private schools.

In the wake of the 2018 floods, the mission laid stress on creating environmental consciousness among students by setting up biodiversity parks and medicinal gardens in schools. Programmes such as Gothra Bandhu and Ooru Vidyabhyasa Kendram were implemented to address alienation faced by tribal students. Autism Park, medical camps, and distribution of assistive devices were held to integrate differently abled students into the mainstream.

On the academic front, programmes such as Sasthrolsavam, Ullasa Ganitham, Hello English, and Surili Hindi were launched to enhance students’ abilities. Kerala Infrastructure and Technology for Education (KITE) rolled out the Free and Open Source Software (FOSS)-based E-Cube English e-Language Lab project to improve English language skills among students from Classes I to VIII.

Improvement in basic infrastructure using Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board (KIIFB) funds, State government funds, and those of people’s representatives; setting up of 45,000 high-tech classrooms in 4,752 schools; classroom libraries; modernisation of science labs; and Information and Communication Technologies-enhanced training for teachers were highlights of the education mission.

The pedagogy underwent a change from teacher-centric to student-centric, with teachers entrusted with mentoring responsibilities. Another highlight was the contribution of the public, alumni, parent-teacher associations, and local bodies in the functioning of schools. The campaign brought about a change in the perception of public education in the State.

Similar changes were taking place in higher education. To meet the rising need for advanced training in computer science and information technology, the State government set up the Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management-Kerala (IIITM-K) in 2000. Two decades later, it was upgraded as the Kerala University of Digital Sciences, Innovation and Technology, the country’s first digital university, to promote advanced research in areas such as artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things, data analytics, cybersecurity and blockchain.

In 2020, Kerala also launched its first open university, Sree Narayana Guru Open University, with the goal of integrating distance education across various public universities under a single, unified system.

The COVID test and digital transformation

The COVID-19 pandemic tested Kerala’s education infrastructure like never before. Exam disruptions and school closures threatened to derail academic progress. The State rose to the challenge through digital classes telecast on the KITE Victers channel. Widespread efforts were made to bridge the digital divide. Where students lacked facilities such as laptops, mobile phones, tablets, or even televisions, these were made available through concerted efforts.

Kerala became the first State in India to go completely digital in public education. After a slide during the pandemic, the State reclaimed its top rankings in various national surveys and assessments such as the National Assessment Survey and the Performance Grading Index. The 2018 Economic Review noted that the State was ranked first in Sustainable Development Goals relating to education by the NITI Aayog.

According to the 2023-24 Periodic Labour Force Survey, the State’s literacy rate stands at 95.3%. In recent years, the Kerala State Literacy Mission Authority has broadened its horizons beyond conventional literacy programmes to reach marginalised sections such as transgender persons and migrant workers, while enhancing environmental, cyber, Braille, legal, and gender literacy. However, pockets of illiteracy remain, which call for focused interventions.

School education today

Today, Kerala’s 15,369 schools serve 43.61 lakh students, employing 1.65 lakh teachers and over 13,000 non-teaching staff. The State maintains high gross enrolment ratios, particularly in primary and secondary education. Women’s literacy stands at 94% against the all-India rate of 80.9%, with a gender literacy gap of merely 2.7 percentage points.

In 2024-25, girls constituted 49.1% of total student enrolment in schools. Though enrolment of boys is slightly higher, the gender gap is very narrow. Scheduled Caste students constituted 9.9% and Scheduled Tribe students 1.9% of total students.

Kerala’s dropout rates as per UDISE+ data were 0.8% for primary students, 0.4% for upper primary students, and 4.8% for high school students in 2024-25. The corresponding all-India dropout rates were 0.3%, 3.5%, and 11.5%.

The State has completed a curriculum revision up to the secondary level and introduced new textbooks for Classes I to X, with greater emphasis on art, sports, artificial intelligence, robotics and work education. Gender sensitivity and inclusion have been carefully added to the content. Along with teacher handbooks that explain how to teach the new textbooks, guides for parents were also prepared to help them support their children’s learning.

The State has also initiated reforms in student assessment by making 30% marks in the written component of examinations mandatory for students in many grades. It is placing more emphasis on continuous evaluation rather than adhering just to learning outcomes. Competency-based assessment has been introduced to improve education quality.

Higher education today

Kerala now has one of the most extensive higher education networks in India, with 15 State universities, one Central university, deemed universities and six Institutes of National Importance including IIT Palakkad, NIT Calicut, IIM Kozhikode and IISER Thiruvananthapuram.

With 1,598 colleges, out of which over 830 are in the self-financing sector, the State offers students a wide array of opportunities across arts, science, humanities, social sciences, engineering, health sciences, agriculture, management, commerce, law, and fisheries and ocean studies. Private colleges, many run by community organisations, were made ‘aided colleges’, receiving State support while retaining their identity. This blend of public regulation and private initiative has become a hallmark of Kerala’s higher education.

The All Kerala Higher Education Survey 2021-22 recorded total student enrolment of 10.99 lakh, of which 3.31 lakh are in universities and 7.67 lakh in colleges. Engineering education expanded rapidly in the 2000s, with 167 colleges functioning by 2023. In health sciences, the Kerala University of Health Sciences affiliates 371 institutions, covering medical, dental, nursing and allied subjects.

Kerala’s gross enrolment ratio in higher education (GERHE) stood at 41.3% — seventh highest among States and Union Territories, according to the All India Survey of Higher Education 2021-22. This marked a creditable achievement, considering the national average of 28.4%. The State government has set itself the goal of raising this to 75% by 2036. Women account for nearly two-thirds of enrolments, making Kerala one of the few States in India where women outnumber men in higher education. The State’s college density, at 46 institutions per lakh population in the 18-23 age group, ranks fifth nationally and far exceeds the national average of 30.

Quality indicators tell a positive story. Kerala’s universities and colleges consistently perform well in the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF). Eighteen arts and science colleges rank among India’s top hundred in the India Rankings 2025. Notably, nearly one-fourth of India’s best 300 colleges, or 74 institutions, are located in the State.

Among State public universities, Kerala University and CUSAT creditably occupy fifth and sixth positions respectively. Mahatma Gandhi University and University of Calicut are placed 17th and 38th in the category. As many as 153 institutions in Kerala hold National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) accreditation above A grade, with 18 institutions earning the prestigious A++ grade.

Beyond rankings, Kerala’s higher education system has played a big role in improving social mobility. After Independence, many first-generation students, especially from marginalised communities, were able to enter colleges and universities, changing the State’s social landscape. Women’s colleges helped create a generation of women professionals. This expansion in education also supported migration, particularly to the Middle East, with remittances from the global diaspora continuing to support Kerala’s economy.

The troubling undercurrent

Yet beneath these impressive statistics lie concerning trends. Total student enrolment in schools dropped from 37.5 lakh in 2023-24 to 36.4 lakh in 2024-25. This decrease is seen across primary to high schools, but the highest is in lower primary — 58,231 students. Class I enrolment in government and aided schools declined by 16,510 from 2,50,986 in 2024-25 to 2,34,476 in 2025-26. The previous year, the decline was by 7,163. The government attributes this fall to low birth rates, but many suspect deeper issues of confidence in the system.

Over the past three decades, the number of higher education institutions in Kerala has risen from about 175 to nearly 1,500. Most of these are self-financing colleges that offer a narrow set of popular subjects such as English, economics, history, mathematics and physics. This limited expansion has raised concerns about quality and usefulness, and many colleges are now seeing large numbers of vacant seats.

More worrying is that many students lack the confidence and skills needed for higher studies or steady jobs, even as Kerala seeks to build a knowledge-based economy. There are doubts about whether curriculum changes alone can fix this. Problems such as limited hands-on learning, continued reliance on rote methods in some subjects, and the gap between the idea of teacher mentoring and what actually happens in classrooms remain.

Governance crisis

Over the past decade, Kerala’s higher education system has slid into a persistent governance crisis. At its core is a prolonged tussle between the Governor, who also serves as Chancellor of State universities, and the Left Democratic Front government over Vice-Chancellor appointments, legislative approvals, and questions of control and oversight.

The conflict first became pronounced during the tenure of former Governor Arif Mohammed Khan, who adopted a strict interpretation of his powers as Chancellor. This led to repeated clashes with the State government, particularly over the composition of search committees and the appointment of Vice-Chancellors. While the government accused the Governor of unilateralism and obstruction, he maintained that the administration was attempting to bypass rules and politicise university governance. The strain has persisted even after Rajendra Vishwanath Arlekar succeeded him, though a recent agreement between Arlekar and Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan on Vice-Chancellor appointments at the A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technological University and the Kerala University of Digital Sciences has partially broken months of deadlock.

Until recently, 13 of Kerala’s 14 State universities were without permanent Vice-Chancellors, a situation repeatedly flagged by both the Supreme Court and the Kerala High Court. Interim arrangements have therefore become routine rather than exceptional.

The fallout extends well beyond administrative wrangling. The absence of regular Vice-Chancellors has weakened long-term planning, slowed research activity and disrupted day-to-day functioning. Faculty appointments remain stuck, curriculum reforms lose momentum, and students bear the cost of unstable leadership. Frequent litigation, stopgap measures and overtly politicised decisions have, over time, also chipped away at public confidence in the system.

A question mark also hangs over the implementation of the second part of the Khader committee recommendations for school education, particularly those related to completing school integration down to the lowest level, reducing higher secondary batch sizes, and the contentious issue of regulating teachers’ organisations.

The exodus of talent

Despite high literacy and a strong network of schools and colleges, Kerala is facing a growing brain drain, with students, faculty, and skilled professionals leaving the State. A study by the Kerala Academy of Sciences linked student migration to the quality of education, limited hands-on training, and few job opportunities, with many youths reluctant to return due to low salaries. The Kerala Migration Survey 2023 found student emigrants rising from 1,29,763 in 2018 to about 2.5 lakh in 2023. This trend is starting to affect admissions in higher education, and while reforms like the Four-Year Undergraduate Programme (FYUGP) could help over time, urgent action is needed. To address the challenge, the State has embraced private investment in education by allowing private universities and launched a ’Brain Gain’ initiative to attract diaspora scholars as teachers, collaborators, and research partners, which has already drawn interest from nearly 250 experts.

Campus politics

Student unions and political activism have historically played an influential role in shaping not only academic life but also broader socio-political discourse in the State. However, in recent decades, this culture has arguably taken an excessive turn, leading to disruptions in academic life, violence and an arguable decline in education quality.

Political party feeder groups like the Students’ Federation of India (SFI), Kerala Students’ Union (KSU) and Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP) have had a strong presence in colleges and universities. Academic institutions have often become battlegrounds for political parties vying for supremacy in their administration. Excessive politicisation has manifested in academic disruptions, campus violence, allegations of suppressed dissent, nepotism and appointments based on allegiance rather than merit.

Commercialisation and eroded values

The growth of profit-oriented institutions, especially in professional courses of engineering and health sciences, has priced out SC/ST and other vulnerable groups. The prevailing growth model contradicts Kerala’s legacy that prioritises equity for all sections.

Nonetheless, successive State governments have upheld reservation norms that enable access for students from marginalised sections to gain admissions to coveted institutions. Fee regulatory mechanisms have also proved instrumental in preventing unreasonable fee hikes, ensuring that prevailing fee structures for higher education courses in Kerala remain considerably lower than in many other States.

Other issues plague both school and higher education. There is an urgent need to develop teacher professionalism down to the grassroots level, and reorient teachers towards equity and quality aspects. Mentoring of students by teachers remains a far cry from the actual idea.

Streamlining of pre-school education has been a slow process. The situation is complicated by the presence of schools under different kinds of management, including government departments. The financial crunch experienced across several sectors for the past couple of years has severely impacted the implementation of schemes and programmes.

The need to strengthen the State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) and develop proper linkages between SCERT and university academic bodies and with other education agencies has been observed. Challenges posed by Artificial Intelligence, children not getting adequate experiential knowledge, formal language of some subjects that lead to rote learning instead of conceptual clarity, and inadequate stress on self-study remain areas needing intervention.

Shift in strategy

After returning to power for a second term in 2021, the Left Democratic Front government set out to shift Kerala from a service and remittance-driven economy to a knowledge-based one. The idea is to generate and use knowledge for innovation, with stronger links between education, research, industry and jobs.

As part of these efforts, the State government set up three commissions to recommend reforms across education, covering structure, laws, teaching, and administration. The Commission for Reforms in Higher Education, chaired by Shyam B. Menon, proposed major changes including the introduction of the Four-Year Undergraduate Programme to replace the three-year course, giving students more flexibility and aligning Kerala’s universities with national and global standards. Other recommendations included research parks, Centres of Excellence, increased government spending, private investment facilitation, and appointing separate Chancellors for universities to address governance issues. The Kerala State University Law Reforms Commission, led by N.K. Jayakumar, suggested strengthening the role of the Pro-Chancellor, limiting Chancellor’s authority, establishing an appellate tribunal, and streamlining statutory bodies for better accountability. Meanwhile, the Commission for Reforms in Examinations, chaired by C.T. Aravindakumar, focused on delays in exams and results, leading to the introduction of a uniform academic calendar and modernisation initiatives such as the K-REAP software to automate and streamline administrative, academic, and examination processes across universities.

School education reforms

After a long gap since the 2007 curriculum framework, Kerala has completed a major overhaul of school education up to the secondary level and is now revising higher secondary courses. The process included wide consultations with teachers, parents, and students, whose feedback helped shape the changes. The new textbooks introduce art, sports, artificial intelligence, robotics, and work education, while promoting gender sensitivity and inclusion. According to the 2023 Economic Review, KIIFB has allocated a total of ₹9 crore for infrastructure improvement in 973 schools, with ₹5 crore for 141 schools, ₹3 crore for 386 schools, and ₹1 crore for 446 schools. Following the 2017 M.A. Khader committee recommendations, the government has also streamlined administration by bringing all schools under one directorate and making principals the heads of schools, with headmasters serving as vice-principals.

Challenges and the way forward

Kerala can take pride in high school completion rates, but challenges of equity, quality, and inclusion remain. Many students still lack the confidence and skills needed for higher education or sustainable livelihoods, especially as technology advances and the State aims at becoming a knowledge economy. Issues such as limited hands-on learning, reliance on rote methods, AI challenges, and weak self-study support need urgent attention. Kerala’s future depends on balancing its egalitarian legacy with global competitiveness by improving quality, fostering research and innovation, strengthening governance, curbing talent migration, and supporting teachers. Moving toward a knowledge-driven economy, the State has the opportunity to show that an inclusive education system can drive not only academic success but broader social and economic progress. This will require political will, resources, and a commitment to the long-standing promise that education is a state duty, ensuring opportunities reach all while translating the system’s proven adaptability into transformative change for the 21st century.

This article is part of The Hindu e-book. Kerala: a model State’s paradox